The Lay Anāgāmī: A Non-Returner in the Household

智宁居士, 高僧大德, 南传上座部佛法, English  · 

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The Lay Anāgāmī: A Non-Returner in the Household - Upasaka Zhining

The path to liberation is not the exclusive domain of monastics. The lives of these lay noble ones, spanning from ancient India to the modern world, eloquently testify that a mind thoroughly purified of sensual lust and ill will can be realized amidst the duties of family, work, and society. They are immaculate lotuses blooming in the mire, offering all practitioners a timeless guide and the most solid ground for confidence.

 

I. Introduction: In Search of Noble Ones with Liberated Minds in the Household Life

Throughout the twenty-five centuries of Buddhist history, the image of the monastic with shaved head and dyed robes, withdrawn from the clamor of the world, has often been the principal representation of a spiritual practitioner in the public mind. They renounce all worldly ties to devote themselves single-mindedly to the cultivation of virtue (sīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā), aspiring to the cessation of the defilements and the final liberation of life—Nibbāna.

However, in the original discourses spoken by the Buddha himself, that is, in the Pāli Canon on which Theravāda Buddhism is based, another type of equally brilliant practitioner is recorded. They lived in the world, possessing families, careers, wealth, and social standing, yet by means of extraordinary effort and wisdom, they severed the deepest roots of sensual desire and hatred amidst the worldly bustle, realizing the sublime fruit of nobility called “Anāgāmī” (the Non-Returner).

The primary purpose of this article is not merely to argue for the possibility of attaining the noble path and its fruits as a layperson—a fact clearly supported by both scriptures and historical accounts, ancient and modern. It is, more importantly, to delve into an issue of profound practical relevance: how to bridge and transform the immense tension between worldly engagement and supramundane liberation. Although it is theoretically possible for a layperson to attain arahantship, the highest stage of lay attainment repeatedly and clearly documented in the narratives of the Pāli Canon is that of the Anāgāmī. It is precisely at this stage that the tension between the “worldly” and the “supramundane” reaches its zenith. A noble one whose mind has completely extinguished sensual lust and ill will must still fulfill duties in a world full of turmoil. The challenges they face are far greater than those encountered by stream-enterers or once-returners.

Therefore, a deep inquiry into the lives of lay Anāgāmīs is intended to reveal the essence of this path to liberation hidden within the mundane world. They are practitioners whose bodies have not left the home, but whose minds will not return to this world; they are awakened ones who walk through the marketplace with minds abiding in the perfect peace of Nibbāna. Their lives are themselves a profound teaching on how to achieve a perfect balance between worldly responsibilities and the tranquility of liberation. This article will first analyze the escalating inner “tension” along the noble path. Subsequently, we will explore the lives of noble ones, both ancient and modern, to see how they, through their own lives, harmonized the peace of the supramundane with the responsibilities of the worldly.

II. Tension on the Noble Path: The Challenges and Transformation of Lay Practice

To understand the extraordinary nature of the lay Anāgāmī, we must first understand the mental journey from an ordinary person (puthujjana) to a noble one (ariya) and the unique challenges that lay practitioners face at each stage.

The First Fruit: The Sotāpanna—A Revolution in View

The Sotāpanna, meaning “stream-enterer,” is the start of the noble path. This is the most common type of lay noble one, and a fruit of the path that householders can attain with almost no change to their secular lifestyle. The core achievement is the eradication of the first three fetters (saṃyojana): identity view (sakkāya-diṭṭhi), doubt (vicikicchā), and the wrong grasp of rules and observances (sīlabbata-parāmāsa). This is essentially a revolution in view. Their lives undergo a fundamental transformation, but this change is internal and profound rather than external and formal.

While the view has changed, the underlying desires remain almost the same. Emotions such as greed, hatred, jealousy, and conceit still arise in a stream-enterer, but they no longer identify with these defilements or believe in a real, substantial “self” that is feeling and in control. In the past, the defilements were like a master, and they were the faithful servants; now, the defilements are like an occasional bothersome guest. They recognize this guest, know it will come and go on its own, and are therefore no longer disturbed or enslaved by it.

Most worldly afflictions arise from our continuous construction and maintenance of a false self-image. When a stream-enterer is no longer intent on compulsively reifying this fictitious “self,” most of the fabrications arising from it cease. They may still work, enjoy entertainment, earn money, and fulfill family duties, but their motivation has shifted—it is now driven more by conditions, responsibility, goodwill, and compassion, rather than by the endless craving to satisfy the “self.”

The Second Fruit: The Sakadāgāmī—The Ebbing of Desire

The Sakadāgāmī, or “once-returner,” will be reborn in the sense-sphere world at most one more time before attaining final liberation. Building on the eradication of the first three fetters, their sensual lust (kāma-rāga) and ill will (vyāpāda) are greatly attenuated. The greed and hate of the sense-sphere are essentially a collection of desires with sexual desire at their foundation. If sexual desire is the deepest root of this tree of sense-sphere greed and hate, then the craving for wealth, forms (in the broad sense), fame, food, and sleep are its main trunk, while the external manifestations—such as the possessiveness of material things, the pursuit of reputation, and the attachments and aversions in relationships—are its dense foliage.

A once-returner will almost inevitably experience a significant change in their sexual desire. Around the time of attaining the second fruit, the fire of lust that was once powerful enough to consume them seems to have suddenly lost most of its fuel—like a bonfire that once blazed fiercely, now reduced to faint embers. An occasional karmic wind might stir up a few sparks, igniting a trivial flame, but it can no longer become the kind of inferno that engulfs reason and sweeps through life.

For the practitioner, the attenuation of desire is a great achievement. As the impulse that once consumed enormous psychological energy to suppress or satisfy weakens, their mind becomes exceptionally clear and tranquil, as if a great weight has been lifted. However, a conventional marital relationship is, to a large extent, a complex of emotions, interests, and responsibilities built upon the foundation of male and female sexual instinct. When one partner’s desire significantly ebbs, the other may still be in a turbulent sea. This difference in inner states marks the first qualitative transformation from a worldly relationship to a spiritual partnership, and it can pose a severe test to the marital bond. At this point, the couple must either end their secular marriage due to irreconcilable differences or, with immense trust, understanding, and compassion, elevate their relationship to one based on wisdom and spiritual friendship—a partnership of “Dhamma companions.” Such a relationship is no longer based on sensual pleasure but is bound by the shared pursuit of wholesome qualities (kusala-dhamma), mutual respect, and support, which allows it to be harmoniously maintained.

The Third Fruit: The Anāgāmī—The Extinction of Sensual Passion

Upon reaching the stage of the Anāgāmī, the “non-returner,” sensual lust and ill will are utterly and permanently eradicated. This means the complete cessation of sexual desire. This is not merely abstaining from sexual activity, but a state where, from the depths of the mind, the craving and longing for the opposite sex and indeed for all sensual objects have completely ceased. This energy, the most powerful force driving beings through endless rebirths, has been pacified within their minds.

To understand the challenges this state brings, we must delve deeper into what the radical inner change after severing the fetters truly means:

This inner transformation allows them to experience a profound and lasting peace and joy of a kind previously unknown. This happiness is not dependent on any external conditions; it is an inner stability nourished purely by the undefiled wholesome qualities. In their eyes, the worldly life of contending for fame and fortune, with its dramas of love and hate, is like a children’s game—illusory and insubstantial.

What follows is the complete dissolution of a series of emotions arising from sexual desire, such as possessiveness, competition, jealousy, and anxiety. For the practitioner, this is an unparalleled state of coolness and freedom. However, for a lay Anāgāmī, it brings a series of even more severe tensions and challenges:

1. The Reshaping of Intimate Relationships: From Worldly Lovers to Pure Dhamma Companions

The first and most direct challenge for the lay noble one comes from the most intimate relationships, particularly with spouses and children. For the noble one, this challenge may not be external pressure, but rather how to wait for and guide, with boundless compassion and patience, their closest loved ones who are still adrift in the sea of sensual love.

2. The Tension of Social Survival: When “Non-Aversion” Meets Cutthroat Competition

The second great challenge comes from modern society and the workplace. An Anāgāmī, having completely eradicated ill will, finds their innate compassion makes it difficult to adapt to the competitive models prevalent in modern society.

3. The Sense of Alienation in Daily Life: A Silent Pilgrim in a Clamorous World

Finally, this inner transformation creates a profound sense of alienation from the mainstream of worldly life in all its aspects.

These challenges may seem insurmountable, but theoretical speculation has its limits. The greatness of the Buddha’s teaching lies in the fact that it is not a castle in the air but is verified by the lives of countless noble ones. Let us now return twenty-five centuries ago, to the records of the Pāli Canon, to seek out those lay noble ones who shine through the ages and see how they, through their own lives, answer these ultimate questions of wisdom, compassion, responsibility, and liberation.

III. Verification in the Canon: Four Models of Ancient Lay Noble Ones

The Pāli Canon records numerous lay noble ones who shine through the ages, presenting us with different paths to harmonizing the worldly and the supramundane through their lives. This article will set aside later embellishments and accretions and focus specifically on four of the most representative figures. They each symbolize four models of perfect practice:

The Foremost Expounder of the Dhamma—Citta the Householder

Among the Buddha’s many lay disciples, Citta the Householder (Citta Gahapati) is undoubtedly one of the brightest stars. He was not only a wealthy benefactor but also a man of supreme wisdom in his understanding of the Dhamma. In the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 1.14), the Buddha himself praised him, saying: “Bhikkhus, among my lay disciples who are expounders of the Dhamma, the foremost is Citta the householder.” His story is a perfect model of the union of wisdom and wealth.

Background: A Wealthy Householder of Macchikāsaṇḍa in Magadha

Citta lived in a place called Macchikāsaṇḍa in the kingdom of Magadha, the most powerful state in India at the time. He was a “householder” (gahapati), a title that in ancient India usually referred to a respected member of society who possessed great wealth in land and property and held high local prestige. The scriptures do not elaborate on how he accumulated his wealth, but from his ability to easily donate a magnificent monastery, his family’s fortune was undoubtedly immense.

The Conditions for Attainment: The Encounter with Venerable Mahānāma

The turning point in Citta’s life came with the visit of Venerable Mahānāma, one of the Buddha’s first five disciples. This key encounter is recorded in the Saṃyutta Nikāya (SN 41.1).

After his attainment, he immediately established unshakable confidence in the Triple Gem and implored Venerable Mahānāma to accept his offering of his newly built park, the “Ambataka-vana,” to be converted into a magnificent monastery for the Saṅgha of the ten directions.

The Wholesome Use of Wealth: Building the Ambataka-vana Monastery

Citta the householder was not a practitioner in name only. He transformed his immense wealth into a powerful force for supporting the Buddha’s Dispensation. The Ambataka-vana monastery he donated became a very important center for propagating the Dhamma at that time. Many famous elder bhikkhus, such as Sāriputta, Mahā Moggallāna, and Anuruddha, visited this place and had brilliant discussions on the Dhamma with Citta the householder. He respectfully provided for all the visiting monks with inexhaustible material support, ensuring they could practice without worry. He perfectly embodied the meaning of what the Buddha called “pure wealth”—earned through righteous means and used for the sublime purpose of benefiting oneself and others.

The Display of Wisdom (I): Teaching Bhikkhus with the Simile of “Two Oxen, One Black and One White”

Citta’s wisdom lay not just in his understanding but also in his skillful application and expression. The Saṃyutta Nikāya (SN 41.3) records his brilliant discourse to a group of elder bhikkhus, which is sufficient proof that the praise of him being “foremost in expounding the Dhamma” was no empty compliment.

With this vivid and precise simile, he clearly explained that the key to liberation lies not in isolating oneself from external objects, but in cutting off the craving in the mind that arises in relation to internal and external objects. The Dhamma itself is not the fetter; the attachment to the Dhamma is. This profound insight earned him the admiration of all the elder bhikkhus present.

The Display of Wisdom (II): Subduing a Heretic with “Personal Realization”

Citta the householder’s most famous debate, recorded in the Saṃyutta Nikāya (SN 41.8), was with one of the six heretical teachers of the time, the leader of the Jains—Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta.

With his direct experience of the meditative absorptions (jhāna), he irrefutably proved that his “knowing” was based on “direct knowledge” (ñāṇa), not on “faith” (saddhā). His faith had long been sublimated through direct realization. The debate ended with Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta speechless.

The Ultimate Test at the End of Life: Refusing to Become a Wheel-Turning Monarch

Citta the householder’s final test occurred on his deathbed (SN 41.10). When numerous deities appeared and tempted him to aspire to become a “wheel-turning monarch” (cakkavatti-rāja), the highest worldly fortune, this noble one, who had already extinguished all sensual desire, was not moved in the slightest. He told the deities:

“That too is impermanent; that too is subject to change.”

This short but powerful reply demonstrates his complete penetration of the “impermanent, suffering, and non-self” nature of all conditioned things in the three realms. After saying this, he passed away peacefully and was reborn in the Pure Abodes (Suddhāvāsa).

Analysis: How to Overcome the “Conceit” of Wisdom and Wealth?

The story of Citta the householder provides an unparalleled model of practice for the intellectuals, entrepreneurs, and affluent classes of modern society. One of the greatest obstacles to practice for such people is often “conceit” (māna), the pride and sense of superiority based on their own intelligence, wealth, or social status.

Citta’s life shows how to overcome this obstacle:

  1. Wisdom is for Liberation, Not for Show: His wisdom was not used to win debates to satisfy his ego, but to clarify the truth for the benefit of himself and others. When teaching bhikkhus, his attitude was humble and respectful; when facing heretics, he used reason to persuade, without a trace of arrogance. True wisdom is necessarily accompanied by a deep insight into “non-self,” which leaves no ground for conceit to stand on.
  2. Wealth Becomes a Provision, Not a Fetter: He was not bound by his great wealth; instead, he transformed it into a powerful provision for supporting the Triple Gem. He understood the impermanent nature of wealth and could therefore use it with a generous and selfless heart, fully embodying the wisdom of “relinquishment.”
  3. Direct Realization is Key: Facing the challenge from Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta, he did not quote any scriptures but spoke directly of his own meditative experience. This shows that his conviction was based on direct realization, not on blind faith. This confidence, founded on experience, was unshakable and allowed him to transcend intellectual pride.

The life of Citta the householder was a manifestation of wisdom. Through his words and deeds, he proved that a layperson can not only achieve a very high level of spiritual attainment but also reach a height in the exposition of the Dhamma that even monastics may find difficult to attain. He used his wealth to protect the Dhamma, his wisdom to propagate it, and the final moments of his life to demonstrate the complete transcendence of the highest worldly desire. The Buddha’s praise of him as “foremost in expounding the Dhamma” is the best epitaph for his glorious life.

The Transformer of Compassion—Ugga the Householder of Vesālī

If Citta the householder represents the pinnacle of wisdom among lay noble ones, then Ugga the householder of Vesālī shows us the ultimate expression of compassion. His story directly confronts the sharpest and most practical contradiction for lay practitioners: after the inner fire of sensual love is completely extinguished, how does one handle the intimate and complex relationships that have already been formed with one’s partners? Ugga the householder, through his astounding yet compassionate actions, provided the most perfect and heart-shaking answer to this question. His story is primarily recorded in the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 8.21 and AN 8.22).

Background: A Wealthy Man of Vesālī with Four Beautiful Wives

Ugga the householder lived in the prosperous commercial and political center of Vesālī. Like Citta, he was a man of great wealth and social prominence. However, the scriptures specifically point out one unique aspect of his life: he had four young, beautiful, and deeply devoted wives.

In the social context of ancient India, having multiple wives was a symbol of wealth and status. These four wives were undoubtedly the core of his happy worldly life. Their existence implies that Ugga himself was once deeply immersed in the enjoyment of sensual pleasures. This also sets up the most dramatic conflict for the choices he would make after his attainment. His practice was not just about overcoming his inner defilements but also about handling the ensuing family and ethical crisis that would affect the fate of four women.

The Conditions for Attainment: Listening to the “Gradual Discourse” Before the Buddha

One day, the Buddha was traveling through Vesālī. Hearing of the Blessed One’s arrival, Ugga the householder went to pay his respects. The Buddha, perceiving that Ugga’s spiritual faculties were mature, delivered to him a distinctive, step-by-step method of teaching known as the “gradual discourse” (anupubbikathā).

This approach does not begin with profound teachings on emptiness or Nibbāna. Like a skilled physician who first regulates the patient’s body before administering strong medicine, the Buddha’s “gradual discourse” consists of the following steps:

  1. A Talk on Giving (Dāna-kathā): First, he praised the merits of generosity to open the listener’s heart to be generous, gentle, and willing to give.
  2. A Talk on Virtue (Sīla-kathā): Next, he explained the benefits of observing the precepts to help the listener establish a code of conduct and inner stability.
  3. A Talk on Heaven (Sagga-kathā): Then, he described the wholesome results of human and heavenly rebirth that can be obtained through giving and virtue, inspiring the listener with joy and aspiration for what is wholesome.
  4. A Talk on the Drawbacks of Sensual Pleasures (Kāmānaṃ ādīnava-kathā): When the listener’s mind was already inclined toward the good, the Buddha began to reveal the true nature of worldly happiness. He pointed out that even heavenly pleasures are essentially rooted in sensual desire (kāma), and that all sensual pleasures are inherently impermanent, oppressive, and not the ultimate, and are the root of suffering.
  5. A Talk on the Benefits of Renunciation (Nekkhamme ānisaṃsa-kathā): Finally, the Buddha pointed out the path that transcends the suffering of desire—the path of renunciation (nekkhamma)—and praised the incomparable peace and joy of liberation that can be gained by letting go of sensual pleasures.

When the Buddha saw that Ugga’s mind, having been guided through this gradual discourse, had become “capable, malleable, free from hindrances, uplifted, and lucid,” he then proclaimed to him the core teaching of the Dhamma—the Four Noble Truths (suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path).

Right there, on his seat as he listened to the Buddha’s discourse, the eye of wisdom opened for Ugga the householder. “The dust-free, stainless eye of the Dhamma arose in him,” and he saw for himself the true nature of phenomena, attaining the first fruit of stream-entry. From a worldling immersed in sensual pleasures, he leaped to become a noble one who had entered the stream, never to be reborn in the lower realms. The scriptures record that after returning home, he continued to practice diligently and eventually, in his own residence, completely eradicated the five lower fetters and attained the fruit of a non-returner.

The Domestic Crisis After the Extinction of Desire: The Most Practical Ethical Challenge

Becoming an Anāgāmī meant that within Ugga’s mind, all sensual craving, including sexual desire, had completely, thoroughly, and permanently ceased. For a husband with four wives, this was undoubtedly a tremendous storm.

He faced the most severe challenge that any lay practitioner might encounter:

This problem transcended the scope of personal liberation and directly questioned the wisdom and compassion of a noble one in a complex human relationship.

The Great Solution: The “Transformation of Compassion”

Ugga the householder’s response is a perfect application of Dhamma’s compassion and wisdom in interpersonal relationships. He did not choose to evade or delay, but acted with extreme sincerity and respect.

Open and Honest Disclosure: Announcing His State of Practice to His Four Wives He gathered his four wives and said to them calmly and sincerely:

“Sisters, I have undertaken to live the holy life (i.e., to abstain from sexual intercourse). Now, you may…”

Note the change in his form of address. He no longer called them “wives” but “sisters” (bhaginīyo). This shift in title precisely redefines their relationship: from a spousal bond based on sensual love to a familial bond based on kinship or a spiritual friendship based on the Dhamma.

Giving Them a Choice: Three Options Full of Compassion and Respect He did not make any unilateral decisions but placed the choice entirely in the hands of his wives, offering them three options that were full of security and respect:

  1. To Remain at Home: “You may continue to live here, enjoy the family’s wealth as you wish, and perform whatever meritorious deeds you desire. I will look after you as my sisters.”
  2. To Return to Their Parental Homes: “If you wish, you may take the property that belongs to you and return to your parents’ homes.”
  3. To Remarry: “If you wish to have another husband, tell me whom you would prefer, and I will give you to him.”

These three options completely eliminated the wives’ fears for the future. Whatever they chose, their dignity, freedom, and livelihood were fully guaranteed. This reflects the completely selfless heart of an Anāgāmī—his considerations were entirely for the welfare of others, not for his own convenience.

Selfless Love: Personally Entrusting His Wife Who Chose to Remarry to Another Man What happened next is the most moving climax of the entire story. His eldest wife, after hearing his words, said to him, “Master, please give me to such-and-such a man.”

For an ordinary person, hearing his wife ask to be married to another man he knows would surely unleash a storm of jealousy, anger, and possessiveness in his heart. But for Ugga the householder, who had already extinguished all ill will and sensual lust, these emotions no longer existed.

His response was:

  1. To Agree Readily: He immediately sent for the man.
  2. To Entrust Her Personally: He took his eldest wife’s hand in one of his and the other man’s hand in his other, and joined their hands together.
  3. To Give a Dowry: He gave his wife her due share of the property as a dowry and presented it to her.

The commentary adds a vivid detail: the man who came was filled with fear, thinking Ugga would punish him for taking his wife. However, Ugga demonstrated the compassion of a noble one. The scripture describes that when he performed this act, which would be unimaginable for an ordinary person, “there was no alteration in his mind.” His mind was unshakeable, filled only with pure blessings and compassion. This scene is the most concrete and profound demonstration of “non-self.”

The Buddha’s Confirmation: The Eight Wondrous and Marvelous Qualities and the Fruit of Anāgāmī

Later, a bhikkhu reported Ugga’s virtuous conduct to the Buddha. The Buddha asked the bhikkhu to go and ask Ugga himself if he possessed the “eight wondrous and marvelous qualities” that the Blessed One had spoken of.

Ugga humbly replied, “Venerable sir, I do not know which eight the Blessed One referred to, but I do indeed possess the following eight qualities.” This self-account (AN 8.21), not only covers his life of practice but also, in the final point, directly reveals his level of attainment:

  1. Faith Upon Seeing the Buddha: The first time I saw the Blessed One, my mind immediately became tranquil with clear confidence.
  2. Extinguishing Desire Upon Hearing the Dhamma: Upon hearing the Buddha’s discourse, I attained the eye of the Dhamma on the spot and undertook the five precepts of the holy life (including abstaining from sexual intercourse).
  3. Skillful Handling of Wives: As described above, I peacefully and selflessly arranged for my four wives, with no sensual lust or ill will in my heart.
  4. Sharing Pure Wealth: My wealth no longer belongs to a “self” but is shared with all virtuous ones in my family and in the Saṅgha.
  5. Respectful Service to the Saṅgha: When I make offerings to bhikkhus, I always do so with a respectful heart, never with arrogance.
  6. Expounding and Listening to the Dhamma: If a bhikkhu expounds the Dhamma, I listen respectfully; if he does not, I take the initiative to expound the Dhamma to him.
  7. Interaction with Devas: Devas often visit me to praise the Dhamma. When I communicate with them, I have not a trace of superiority in my mind, thinking, “Devas have come to see me” (absence of conceit).
  8. Eradication of the Five Lower Fetters: “Venerable sir, as to these five lower fetters spoken of by the Blessed One—identity view, doubt, wrong grasp of rules and observances, sensual desire, and ill will—I see for myself that they have been completely abandoned in me, without any remainder.”

Through these eight marvelous qualities, Ugga the householder proved to us that a layperson can not only eradicate the grossest sexual desire and hatred but can also demonstrate the characteristic composure and compassion of a noble one when dealing with the most complex family entanglements. He was a true Anāgāmī, one who “dwelt at home but whose mind would not return,” having severed the “five lower fetters.”

The Buddha concluded: “Bhikkhus, you should bear in mind this Ugga the householder, who possesses these eight wondrous and marvelous qualities!” This was undoubtedly the highest endorsement of his spiritual attainment.

Analysis: Elevating the Love of Possession to Boundless Compassion and Relinquishment

The story of Ugga the householder is a magnificent poem of compassion and relinquishment in the Pāli Canon. Through his own life, he provided a brilliant model for all lay practitioners, especially those in complex emotional relationships. He tells us that:

His life perfectly illustrates how to sublimate the most intense possessive love of the world into the purest selfless compassion of the Dhamma. He was not only a “non-returner” but also a “transformer” of worldly emotions.

The Silent One in the Midst of Clamor—Hatthaka of Āḷavī

In the two noble ones we have discussed, Citta the householder showed us the brilliance of wisdom, while Ugga the householder demonstrated the depth of compassion. Now we turn our attention to the third great lay Anāgāmī—Hatthaka of Āḷavī. His life story reveals another crucial and highly relevant aspect of practice for our time: how to maintain the silent, unshakable mind of a noble one amidst the complexities of social responsibilities and public affairs. Hatthaka was a natural leader, a manager at the center of the hustle and bustle. Through his life, he proved that the noblest form of leadership is, in itself, a profound practice of the Dhamma.

Background: The Leader of Āḷavī and His Legendary Origin

In the Pāli Canon, Hatthaka is a highly respected lay disciple from the state of Āḷavī. He is often described as a leader with a following of five hundred young men and is sometimes referred to as a “prince.” The canon itself does not detail his origins but focuses on his profound discussions on the Dhamma with the Buddha and his virtues as a model lay follower.

His rather legendary origin is detailed in later Pāli commentarial literature, such as the commentary to the Dhammapada. According to the commentaries, Hatthaka’s father was a powerful yakkha (a nature spirit) named Āḷavaka. This yakkha was once fierce and violent but was later subdued by the Buddha’s compassion and wisdom, taking refuge in the Triple Gem and becoming a protector of the Dhamma. When the Buddha converted this yakkha, he stayed overnight in his home. At that time, the yakkha’s wife (a human princess) was pregnant, and the Buddha blessed the unborn child.

After the child was born, the yakkha presented him to the Buddha, who then handed the infant back to him. Because the child was passed from the yakkha’s “hand” to the Buddha’s “hand,” he was named “Hatthaka” (hand). This unique origin story gives Hatthaka not only the status of a human social leader but also a transcendent background, symbolizing the powerful transformative force of the Dhamma—that even the most violent defilements (like a yakkha) can be tamed and give birth to wholesome roots leading to liberation.

The Conditions for Attainment: The Impact of a First Meeting with the Buddha and His Teaching

Hatthaka’s connection with the Dhamma was destined from the moment of his birth. When he grew up and heard that the Buddha had come to Āḷavī again, he led his five hundred followers to pay his respects to the Blessed One. This event is recorded in the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 3.35).

At that time, the Buddha was giving a discourse to many bhikkhus. The arrival of Hatthaka and his large retinue caused a stir. The Buddha did not interrupt his discourse but continued to teach peacefully. Hatthaka thought to himself, “It would be inappropriate for me to interrupt the Blessed One’s discourse now. I should wait until he has finished before I approach him for instruction.” So he led his followers to sit quietly to one side and waited patiently.

After the Buddha finished his discourse, Hatthaka went forward, bowed, and asked a seemingly simple yet profound question: “Blessed One, do you sleep well at night?”

The Buddha replied: “Yes, prince, I sleep well. I am one of those in the world who sleep well.”

Hatthaka then expressed his confusion:

“Blessed One, it is now the cold winter, during the eight nights of the frost-falling season. The ground is as hard as a cow’s hoof, your bed is a simple mat of straw, the leaves on the trees are sparse and offer no shelter from the wind, your robes are thin, and the wind is chilling. How can you say that you sleep well?”

This was a reasonable question from a worldling based on material conditions. However, the Buddha’s answer instantly elevated the conversation to the supramundane level.

The Buddha said: “Prince, let me ask you a question in return. If a householder lives in a palace with a roof, plastered inside and out, with doors and windows shut, on a comfortable couch, surrounded by his wives, but his mind is burning with the fire of lust, the fire of hatred, and the fire of delusion, can he sleep well?”

Hatthaka replied: “No, Blessed One. He will be tormented by these fires of the defilements and will not be able to sleep peacefully.”

The Buddha then recited the famous verse:

“Always, in every way, the brahmin sleeps in peace, He who is not attached to sensual pleasures, cool, without acquisition. Having cut off all attachments, having subdued the fever in the heart, The tranquil one sleeps in peace, for his mind has attained perfect peace.”

With this discourse, the Buddha taught that true “well-being” and “happiness” do not come from the superiority of external material conditions but from the extinguishing of the inner fires of the defilements. A person whose mind is full of greed, hatred, and delusion, even in a palace, is as if in hell; while a noble one whose mind is free from defilements, even lying on the frosty ground, is as if in heaven.

This profound contrast between “worldly pleasure” and “supramundane bliss” struck Hatthaka’s mind like a bolt of lightning. He and several of his followers, at that moment, “the dust-free, stainless eye of the Dhamma arose in them,” and they attained the first fruit of stream-entry. Afterwards, Hatthaka continued his practice and soon attained the fruit of a non-returner.

The Practice of Leadership in Dhamma: Uniting People with the “Four Means of Inclusion”

The quality for which Hatthaka was most praised by the Buddha was his perfect integration of the Dhamma into the art of social leadership. The core method he used was the “four means of inclusion” (cattāri saṅgahavatthūni), which are four ways of gathering and uniting people. In the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 1.14), the Buddha declared him to be “foremost among lay disciples in gathering a following with the four means of inclusion.”

The fundamental reason Hatthaka could master these four methods was that his mind had already eradicated the root defilements that cause leadership to fail: without greed, his giving was pure; without aversion, his kindly speech was sincere; without delusion, his beneficial conduct was wise; and without conceit, his impartiality was complete.

The “Three Unsatisfied Desires” After Rebirth in Heaven

After his life came to an end, Hatthaka was reborn in the Pure Abodes, a realm in the fine-material sphere. One night, Hatthaka, now a deva, appeared before the Buddha in his celestial form and paid his respects. The Buddha asked him if he had any regrets in his life, and the deva Hatthaka replied that there were three things he was never satisfied with, even at the time of his death:

  1. “Never satisfied with seeing the Buddha.”
  2. “Never satisfied with hearing the good Dhamma.”
  3. “Never satisfied with serving the Saṅgha.”

This conversation is the best measure of the difference in values between a worldling and a noble one. The “unsatisfied desires” of a worldling are an endless craving for wealth, forms, fame, food, and sleep. But for an Anāgāmī who has already extinguished all sensual desire, the only “unsatisfied desire” is an infinite reverence and longing for the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha.

Analysis: Abiding in the Noble Path Amidst Worldly Affairs

Hatthaka’s life illuminates a path for all lay practitioners who bear social responsibilities. He shows us that the tension between worldly engagement and supramundane liberation can be transformed in the following ways:

Hatthaka is like a meditator who remains unshakable in the marketplace. He fulfilled his worldly responsibilities and at the same time realized the supramundane fruit of nobility, serving as a shining example of the perfect integration of “worldly engagement” and “supramundane liberation.”

The Poor and Filial Noble One—Ghaṭīkāra the Potter

Among the three lay Anāgāmīs we have discussed, Citta the householder was immensely wealthy, Ugga the householder had a prosperous family, and Hatthaka was a prince. Their stories are undoubtedly great, but they might seem distant to some practitioners who live in ordinary or even impoverished circumstances. However, the fourth great lay noble one recorded in the Pāli Canon—Ghaṭīkāra the Potter—with his completely different life path, has established an immortal spiritual monument for all ordinary people, especially for those practitioners who cannot go forth due to family responsibilities.

His story did not take place in the time of Gotama Buddha but in the era of a past Buddha—Kassapa Buddha. We know this story because Gotama Buddha, in the Majjhima Nikāya (MN 81, the Ghaṭīkāra Sutta), recounted with deep affection to his disciples his past life memories of this dear friend.

Background: A Poor Potter, the Foremost Lay Supporter of Kassapa Buddha

The Buddha recalled that in a distant past, Ghaṭīkāra was a poor potter (kumbhakāra) who, by making and selling pottery, humbly supported his aged and blind parents. Yet this man, who was “without possessions” in the eyes of the world, was the most trusted and praised foremost lay supporter (aggupaṭṭhāka) of Kassapa Buddha at that time.

The Friendship of Noble Ones: With the Bodhisatta Jotipāla

Ghaṭīkāra’s closest friend was a young brahmin student named Jotipāla, and this young man was none other than the past life of Gotama Buddha, who was telling the story!

Ghaṭīkāra, who had already attained the fruit of a non-returner, repeatedly urged his exceptionally intelligent friend to go and see Kassapa Buddha, but the Bodhisatta Jotipāla at that time held a prejudice against homeless mendicants and refused several times. Finally, one time, after bathing, Ghaṭīkāra grabbed his friend by his topknot, a symbol of his noble brahmin status, and said firmly:

“Dear friend, it is for your long-term welfare and happiness that I do this! Let us go and see Kassapa Buddha! I will not let you go!”

The Bodhisatta Jotipāla was deeply struck by his friend’s determination to act for his sake, even at the risk of “offending” him. He finally agreed to go. It was this seemingly rough “grab” that completely changed the Bodhisatta’s life path, leading him to draw near to the Dhamma and eventually attain Buddhahood.

The Precepts and Life of a Noble One

Although Ghaṭīkāra lived as a layman, he observed celibacy and did not handle gold and silver. He did not engage in ordinary commerce but only exchanged his pottery for food on a voluntary basis. His way of life was almost identical to that of a bhikkhu who strictly observed the precepts. The Buddha himself listed seven of his virtues, including: supporting his parents, practicing the holy life under Kassapa Buddha (abstaining from sexual intercourse), not eating at the wrong time (after midday), observing the eight precepts, and having no doubt in the Triple Gem.

His way of earning a living as a potter was also unique, reflecting his ultimate adherence to the principle of “non-harming.” He never dug the earth but only used clay that was readily available from riverbanks washed by water or dug up by animals. He also never set a price for his pottery but simply left it by the roadside for those in need to exchange for grain as they saw fit.

The Dilemma of Supreme Filial Piety and Going Forth: The Most Profound Life Choice

Ghaṭīkāra’s heart deeply yearned for the homeless life, but the heavy responsibility of caring for his blind parents prevented him from taking that step. This dilemma between “filial piety” and the “path” is a profound predicament that many aspiring practitioners face.

Kassapa Buddha fully understood and praised his choice. Ghaṭīkāra proved with his life that the key to liberation lies in the purification of the mind, not in the change of identity. When family responsibilities become an inescapable duty, fulfilling that duty with a selfless and compassionate heart is itself a great practice. His filial piety, far from being an obstacle to his attainment, became the cornerstone of his perfected virtue.

The Supreme Relinquishment: When the Saṅgha Took the Thatch from His Roof

The Ghaṭīkāra Sutta records that one time, Kassapa Buddha’s hut was leaking. The Buddha asked a bhikkhu to go to Ghaṭīkāra’s house to find some thatch. The bhikkhu reported that there was no thatch available, only the thatch on the roof. Kassapa Buddha said without hesitation, “Go and take the thatch from his roof.”

When Ghaṭīkāra returned home and saw his roof dismantled and the sky exposed, his parents told him that the Saṅgha had taken the thatch. As a poor potter, this would have been a great loss, but he did not feel a single moment of anger or regret. Instead, a strong noble joy (pīti) arose in him for several days: “How fortunate I am! The Blessed One was willing to use my thatch!” Miraculously, during that rainy season, although his roof was open, rain never wet his room. This miracle, inspired by his absolute “faith” and “relinquishment” towards the Triple Gem, even moved King Kiki of that time.

Unmoved by Wealth

When King Kiki heard of the virtues of this great supporter, he sent five hundred cartloads of fine rice and various seasonings as a gift. However, faced with this enormous fortune that could have changed his life, Ghaṭīkāra politely declined the king’s offer, stating that in this life, he only wished to support his parents through his humble craft of pottery and that his heart lacked nothing. He proved to the world that for a noble one who is rich within, worldly wealth is as worthless as dirt.

Analysis: Transforming Worldly Responsibility into a Ladder to Liberation

Ghaṭīkāra’s story is the most precious gift the Buddha gave to all ordinary lay practitioners. His life provides the most down-to-earth solution to the “tension between worldly engagement and supramundane liberation”:

Ghaṭīkāra, the poor and filial son, the noble one who shaped pottery from dust, also shaped for us, with his life, an eternal model of how to realize the most sublime ideal in the most ordinary of lives.

IV. Modern Echoes: The Light of Noble Ones in the World

After a deep study of the radiant ancient lay noble ones in the Pāli Canon, a natural question arises in our minds: today, twenty-five centuries later, in this modern society of unprecedented material abundance, information explosion, and yet increasing mental agitation, do lay noble ones like Citta and Ugga still exist? Is the gate to the noble path still open to laypeople in our time? And how do they transform the unique tensions of modern society?

In twentieth-century Thai and Burmese Buddhism, a great revival of the Dhamma emerged. Its core was a return to the direct, experiential realization of the Dhamma as in the Buddha’s time. Surrounding these great monastic masters was often a group of dedicated lay disciples who had attained high levels of practice. These precious, well-documented accounts provide us with the clearest and most exciting window through which to observe the existence of modern noble ones.

A Cautious Topic: A Worldling Cannot Fathom the State of a Noble One

Before beginning any discussion, we must first establish a fundamental principle of Theravāda Buddhism: “A worldling cannot fathom the state of a noble one.” This means that a worldling who has not yet attained the fruit of the path cannot accurately gauge or determine whether another person has realized a stage of nobility.

Therefore, the “noble” status of the individuals introduced in this chapter is primarily supported by the assessments or descriptions of their spiritual states made by recognized meditation masters of unimpeachable virtue and wisdom, rather than by any definitive conclusions. What we will present are factual stories based on these assessments, with a focus on how they transformed the tension between “worldly engagement” and “supramundane liberation” in modern life.

The following four great modern practitioners show us the different levels and possibilities of this path in our time:

Sayagyi U Ba Khin: The Accountant General’s Path to Liberation

Sayagyi U Ba Khin (1899-1971) was one of the most outstanding lay meditation masters of twentieth-century Burma. His life perfectly illustrates how to achieve the highest supramundane liberation while shouldering extreme worldly responsibilities.

Background and Path of Practice

Sayagyi U Ba Khin was a prodigy of exceptional talent. Born into a poor family, he distinguished himself through academic excellence and eventually became the first Accountant General of the post-independence Burmese government. In that tumultuous era, he held four positions simultaneously, and the pressure of his work was immense. However, this great pressure also made him realize the necessity of finding a way to liberate his mind from defilements.

He studied under the renowned Burmese lay master Saya Thetgyi, in the pure lineage of Vipassanā from Ledi Sayadaw. With astonishing diligence, U Ba Khin squeezed every available moment outside of his official duties to practice meditation. He discovered that the mindfulness and equanimity developed through Vipassanā meditation not only did not interfere with his work but greatly enhanced his efficiency and the precision of his decision-making. He often said, “To get good results from your work, you must work with a pure mind.”

The Stature and Legacy of a Noble One

Although Sayagyi U Ba Khin was a layman, the state he attained and his insistence on the purity of the Dhamma earned him the respect of the entire Burmese Buddhist community. He established the International Meditation Centre (I.M.C.) in Yangon, specifically to provide a place for busy laypeople like himself to engage in direct practice in their spare time, proving that profound meditation was not the exclusive domain of monastics.

While there are no explicit records of an arahant directly confirming his attainment, his legacy itself is the most powerful proof:

Analysis: Transforming One’s Position into a Place of Practice, Forging Concentration and Wisdom Through Responsibility

Sayagyi U Ba Khin faced the most typical tension of modern professionals: the conflict between high-pressure work, complex social relationships, and the pursuit of inner peace. He transformed this tension through “practicing meditation in action” and “the integration of Dhamma and self.”

Phon Ratanasuwan: The Engineer’s Eye of Wisdom

Phon Ratanasuwan (1909-1991) was a highly intelligent lay practitioner in Thailand whose story embodies the perfect fusion of modern scientific rational thinking and the ancient wisdom of the Dhamma.

Background and Path of Practice

Phon Ratanasuwan was a high-ranking engineer at the Royal Thai Navy Dockyard, with a military rank up to captain, and a respected shipbuilding expert. He was naturally skeptical and sought logic and empirical evidence in all matters. When he first encountered Buddhism, he was not satisfied with mere faith but longed to personally verify everything the Buddha taught. This spirit of inquiry drove him to study the Pāli Canon in depth and to visit the greatest forest meditation master of the time in Thailand—Ajahn Mun Bhuridatto.

Under Ajahn Mun’s rigorous and direct guidance, Phon Ratanasuwan turned his engineer’s analytical skills inward to observe his own mind. With immense patience and precision, he watched the arising and ceasing of thoughts and the changing of feelings, dissecting the construct of “self” layer by layer, as if dissecting a precision instrument.

Ajahn Mun’s Acknowledgment

Venerable Ajahn Mun was renowned for his ability to perceive the minds of others. He was extremely strict with his disciples and rarely praised anyone publicly. However, his biography records his rare comment about a “wise layman” from Bangkok, and this layman was none other than Phon Ratanasuwan.

According to the biography of Ajahn Mun written by Ajahn Maha Boowa, Ajahn Mun once told his disciples, “Tonight, a lay Anāgāmī will arrive.” The person who came to see the venerable master that evening was Phon Ratanasuwan. After several Dhamma discussions, Ajahn Mun further indicated that this layman’s wisdom was very mature and that he was nearing the end of his journey. This acknowledgment from a recognized arahant is considered the highest affirmation of Phon Ratanasuwan’s spiritual attainment in the Thai Buddhist community.

Analysis: Using Reason as a Raft to Cross the Sea of Defilements

The tension Phon Ratanasuwan faced was the tension between the rational skepticism of a modern intellectual and the faith of the Dhamma, as well as the tension between professional technical work and insight meditation. He transformed this tension by using reason as a tool, not an obstacle.

Dipa Ma: Compassion and Fearlessness in the Kitchen

Dipa Ma (1911-1989) was a housewife born in India. Her story profoundly illustrates how the most sublime meditation can be integrated into the most ordinary, mundane family life.

Background and Path of Practice

Dipa Ma was once an ordinary wife and mother. However, fate dealt her heavy blows; in her middle age, she successively experienced the loss of her husband and children. Immense grief and the fear of death pushed her to the brink of collapse. To save herself, she encountered the Vipassanā meditation taught by Mahasi Sayadaw of Burma. After intensive practice at a meditation center, she experienced deep insight. When she returned to her home in Calcutta, she did not choose a solitary life but continued to live as a grandmother in a large family. Her meditation hall was her kitchen and bedroom.

The Stature of a Noble One

Although there is no explicit confirmation of her level of attainment, many of the first generation of Western meditation teachers who sought the Dhamma in the East, such as Jack Kornfield and Sharon Salzberg, studied under her and left strikingly consistent descriptions of her state:

Analysis: Dissolving the Boundary Between Life and Practice with a “Non-Dual” Mind

Dipa Ma’s life is like a living Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta. The tensions she faced were the tension between intense personal trauma and the peace of liberation, as well as the tension between tedious family responsibilities and continuous meditation practice.

She transformed these tensions by completely dissolving the boundaries between them, achieving a “non-dual” practice. For her, there was no distinction between “practice time” and “life time.” Chopping vegetables, sweeping the floor, taking care of her grandchildren—every action, every thought was an object of mindful awareness. When every moment of life becomes practice, the opposition between “life” and “practice” ceases to exist, and the tension dissolves with it. Her life brings infinite hope and the most practical methods to all modern people struggling with family and work.

Upasika Kee Nanayon: The Light of Wisdom from Self-Awakening

Upasika Kee Nanayon (1901-1979) was one of the most respected female lay meditation teachers of twentieth-century Thailand. She provides a wisdom-based model for intellectuals and female practitioners who seek deep practice in worldly life.

Background and Path of Practice

Upasika Kee was born into a wealthy family, but from an early age, she keenly observed the underlying suffering and bondage of secular marriage and family life. Therefore, she chose to remain unmarried for her entire life, living a life almost like a monastic with her aunt, strictly observing the eight precepts. Her practice was entirely self-taught; through in-depth study of the Pāli Canon and using her own body and mind as a laboratory, she conducted relentless observation and investigation.

The Core of Her Teaching and the Praise of an Eminent Monk

Her teaching was known for its uncompromising directness, repeatedly emphasizing that the battlefield of liberation is right here in the present “mind.” A core teaching of hers was: “Whatever arises in the mind, good or bad, just watch it. Don’t grasp it, don’t become it. It arises on its own, and it will cease on its own. Your job is just to ‘know,’ not to ‘intervene.’”

Her wisdom was so profound and clear that even the great forest master Ajahn Chah held her in high esteem. Ajahn Chah often sent his disciples, including many Western monks, to Upasika Kee’s center to listen to her discourses, believing that she was an unparalleled expert in expounding on the subtle points of the Dhamma.

Analysis: Perfecting the “Mind of Renunciation” in Solitude

The tension Upasika Kee faced was the conflict between mainstream social values (especially the expectations for women) and her personal inner pursuit of liberation. She transformed this tension by creating a “third way.”

V. The Reason for Their Existence: Why Do Noble Ones Remain in the World?

From the moment a practitioner attains the fruit of stream-entry (Sotāpanna), their journey through the cycle of rebirth is on a countdown. For those Anāgāmīs who have eradicated sensual desire and ill will, this world, so full of the agitation and turmoil of the five sense pleasures, no longer holds any attraction.

So, since their minds no longer cling to the mundane world, why do these noble ones not immediately go forth as monastics, but instead choose the seemingly contradictory life form of a “lay Anāgāmī”?

This is not due to any attachment on the part of the noble ones, but arises from deep-seated conditions and compassion. Just as the Buddha, after his enlightenment, remained in the world for forty-five years to teach the Dhamma out of great compassion and the condition of benefiting beings, the continuation of lay noble ones in the world is often to fulfill certain specific conditions and compassionate vows. Based on the Pāli Canon and real-life examples, the reasons can be summarized into four main points:

1. To Fulfill Unfinished Past Conditions: Settling Final Responsibilities

This is the most fundamental reason. Life is a vast net woven from countless karmic forces and conditions. Although the mind of a noble one is liberated, the deep-seated conditions formed in past lives do not immediately disappear.

Take Ghaṭīkāra the potter, for example. The reason he did not go forth was not because he was attached to family life, but because he had to care for his blind parents. This was not a clinging to the world, but a shouldering of responsibility. Noble ones know that these responsibilities are the final “karmic ties” they must resolve in their cycle of rebirth. They choose to remain as laypeople to respond to these conditions with compassion and patience, much like a traveler about to embark on a long journey who carefully cleans the room he once lived in before departing, ensuring he leaves with no lingering attachments.

2. A Skillful Manifestation of Compassion to Guide Beings: Serving as a Beacon for the World

The very existence of lay noble ones is itself the most powerful, unspoken teaching for the world. For the general public, the state of a monastic may seem remote and unattainable, whereas lay noble ones live among them.

Noble ones like Citta the householder and Hatthaka, who lived amidst fame and fortune yet remained undefiled, showed the world through their lives that the path to liberation does not exist only in remote mountain monasteries. As long as one practices according to the Dhamma, an ordinary person can also be transformed into a noble one. This manifestation of “impartiality” often inspires more confidence and aspiration in those around them than words ever could, serving as a beacon to guide the way in the mundane world.

3. A Unique Mission to Propagate the Dhamma: Conveying the Supramundane Path Through Worldly Means

The status, wealth, or skills that certain noble ones possess in worldly society can be the most excellent tools for propagating the Buddha’s teachings.

If Sayagyi U Ba Khin had not been a high-ranking government official, he would not have been able to establish the International Meditation Centre that primarily served public officials, nor would it have been easy for him to use his international prestige to pave the way for Vipassanā to spread to the world. If Phon Ratanasuwan had not been an engineer, he might not have been able to open a path for modern intellectuals to approach the Dhamma through reason. Their lay status was not an obstacle to their practice; on the contrary, it was a unique platform for them to fulfill their mission of propagating the Dhamma, supporting the Saṅgha, and benefiting many. They were not bound by their status but skillfully used it to benefit beings.

4. The Ultimate Test of Practicing in Action: True Gold Fears No Fire

From the ultimate perspective of practice, when the mind has thoroughly realized “non-self” and “non-attainment,” external forms are no longer a fetter.

For an Anāgāmī whose mind has completely eradicated sensual lust and ill will, there is no difference in the coolness of their mind whether they are in a quiet forest or a bustling city. To continue living in a world full of temptations and conflicts, to face situations without the mind being moved, is itself the most profound and vivid verification of “non-attachment.” They are like red lotuses blooming in a blazing fire; their fragrance is all the more precious and rare because of the harshness of the environment.

Therefore, the presence of lay noble ones in the world is by no means a compromise, but a proactive undertaking based on wisdom, compassion, and profound conditions.

VI. The Message for Our Time: If the Mind is Liberated, Everywhere is a Place of Practice

From the immensely wealthy Citta the householder of ancient India to the incredibly busy Accountant General U Ba Khin of modern Burma; from Ugga with his four beautiful wives to the lifelong celibate Upasika Kee; from Prince Hatthaka with his heavy responsibilities to the compassionate grandmother Dipa Ma in her kitchen…

These life stories, spanning twenty-five centuries, transcend the barriers of class, gender, culture, and time to convey a single, inspiring truth: the potential for awakening is equally present in the heart of every being. The key to liberation lies not in where you are or what status you hold, but in whether you are willing, with honest and fearless courage, to purify the heart that has long been obscured by the dust of the defilements.

These “non-returners in the mundane world” did not live in a vacuum. On the contrary, the challenges they faced—the conceit arising from wealth and success, the sensual love in intimate relationships, the pressure of workplace competition, the burden of family responsibilities—are the very predicaments that each of us faces today. They became noble ones not because they evaded these tensions, but because they mastered the wisdom of the “middle way.”

Their life experiences provide us with four keys to transforming the defilements:

  1. Use Wisdom (Paññā) as a Lamp: To see the “impermanent, suffering, and non-self” nature of all worldly phenomena, and thus to dismantle the attachment to fame and fortune at its root.
  2. Use Loving-kindness (Mettā) as a Bridge: To elevate the selfish love of possession into selfless giving, to resolve conflicts in interpersonal relationships, and to perfect wholesome connections.
  3. Use Virtue (Sīla) as a Raft: To regard social responsibilities and work as a field for practicing the precepts, and to accumulate the provisions for liberation amidst worldly affairs.
  4. Use Mindfulness (Sati) as an Anchor: To abide in each ordinary present moment, allowing eating, dressing, and working to become the practice of awareness, and thus to dissolve the opposition between “life” and “practice.”

Lay noble ones can exist not because they “balance” desire and liberation, but because they cut off desire in the midst of the mundane world and use their remaining karmic energy and life to fulfill their responsibilities and to give.

The purpose of writing this article is by no means to confuse the issue or to promote the erroneous views that “lay practice is better than monastic practice” or that “the two are completely equal.” On the contrary, we must honestly point out that for the pursuit of ultimate liberation, the renunciate life of a monastic is indeed a more direct, smoother, and less obstructed “highway.” In comparison, lay practice is a difficult path full of thorns, detours, and obstacles.

This article is written for those who aspire to liberation but, for various reasons, are temporarily unable to go forth—the “not-yet-arrived.” It is hoped that this “handbook of experiences from our predecessors” will allow them to see that the burden of caring for parents, the friction of getting along with a partner, the hardship of work—these seeming obstacles to practice, if held with the middle way and equanimity, can all be transformed into a ladder to the state of nobility. Do not limit yourself because you are in the mundane world; even in a world full of the smoke and fire of daily life, you can still take firm steps forward. This is the “non-dual path” between “worldly responsibility” and “supramundane liberation.”

In this world overflowing with material desires, practitioners are few and far between. Among them, those who seek the ultimate reality are even fewer. Among those who seek the ultimate reality, those who are able to realize the noble path and its fruits are fewer still. Among the four pairs and eight types of noble ones who realize the path and fruit, those who can attain the state of Anāgāmī are even fewer. And among the Anāgāmīs, those who can exist stably in the role of a “lay Anāgāmī” are the fewest of all… Seen in this light, what a hidden and difficult narrow path this is.

For those who are already abiding on the other shore, silently hidden in the world—the “already-arrived”—this article is more like a belated letter of tribute. It brings the glorious accounts of the ancient noble ones and also conveys the warm greetings of the modern ones. May they, in their long silence, feel the warmth of the lineage: the path they walk, the noble ones of old have also walked. Though they may seem solitary, they are also the most real and moving scenery in this world.

They are the pure lotuses in the mundane world—their roots are in the mud (body in the world), but their flowers bloom in the sky (mind will not return). They are not only unstained, but they also adorn the world.